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Virtual Guide
| Slavery | Slavery & Abolition
History
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Surinam
Slavery &
Abolition in the USA | Slavery
Today
The African presence and survival in America, a story of interest
to all
African Americans have a long, eventful history and a rich culture
that fascinates not only themselves but others as well. African
American history is often tragic but has also shown persistent survival
against all odds and even at times triumph. The story of African
Americans has involved much difficulty and struggle but yet much
overcoming, endurance and accomplishment. Africans and their descendents
have helped to build America in many ways: work, culture, inventions,
military service, social refrom, politics, art, music, sports and
cooking are a few examples. Their many contributions - though never
adequately recognized or given credit - made America successful
and powerful. African American labor, for example, made America
rich and a commercial leader in the world economy. Furthermore,
African American music, entertainment and cultural style became
globally imitated and sought after.
Remarkably, though they themselves have experienced the depths of
oppression and slavery, African Americans are global liberators
of many people and cultures in the far corners of the earth. This
is because the 19th century anti-slavery struggle and the Black
Civil Rights movement of the 1960s and 70s have been the role models
for many other liberation movements that have helped people all
over the world. African Americans have given far more to America
than they have ever received or been paid for and despite their
problems they continue to be a source of strength and solutions
for the country and the world.
The group survival of Africans wherever they are is a tribute to
their inherent strength as a race and a culture and is one of the
great phenomena of nature. Despite many negative forces against
them over the centuries (slavery, oppression, being seen as inferior,
destruction of original cultures and economic exploitation) African
people all over the world have somehow survived as a group and have
not been physically exterminated like many other conquered peoples
in world history. Though many individuals have died or suffered
tragic, oppressed lives and loss of all they had, the impact of
Africans as a group is great and they continue to live and grow
despite many adversities. Not only have they not been wiped out,
they also have been shown to mix well (genetically and culturally)
with other peoples, producing quite viable and vigorous mixed offspring
who also thrive, increase and achieve.
There are any number of explanations for this survival strength,
depending on who is explaining. Some might say that people of African
descent have been economically useful to others and thus were kept
alive to serve an economic purpose. Some might say that they were
physically hardy and strong and genetically selected for physical
survival by the rigors of slavery and the middle passage. Other
factors might be pointed out also. However, many people of African
descent themselves might say- when they are speaking privately and
freely - that their continued survival has to do with an innate,
intangible spiritual strength and a connection to invisible forces
that cannot be perceived or explained in mere economic, political
or physical terms.
Africans have always had a great respect for religion and spiritual
matters. Even though the various types of religion practiced have
taken widely different forms, the innate impact and existence of
the spiritual is a very important though intangible force in all
African-derived societies. Whether traditional original tribal religions,
Christianity, Islam or some other form of religious expression,
much of what has happened to Blacks is related (in their own minds)
with religion and a world beyond what can be immediately seen (but
that they themselves know and feel in very powerful ways). It is
thus interesting to note that many of the slave revolts (in the
US, Haiti and Brazil) and much of the Black American civil rights
movement were inspired by religious feeling of some kind mixed with
racial advancement aims and led by religious figures. Whatever the
reasons, despite the loss of homeland, freedom, possessions and
culture, in the long run, Africans as a group have survived and
overcome forces that have destroyed many other peoples.
For one reason or another, the experiences and contributions of
African Americans are now on many people's minds. The history, activities
and culture of African Americans - long ignored, distorted or misinterpreted
- is of great interest worldwide. Not only African Americans themselves,
but many others (even those unused to or uncomfortable with actual
living African Americans) are affected by their culture and interested
in some aspect of their experience. What African Americans have
said, done, produced and been through is now the focus of much worldwide
fascination. An increasing number of people want to know about it,
see it, hear about it, read about it or argue about it. In addition,
many now want to collect (i.e. own and accumulate) the tangible
evidence of the African American experience).
Why are people (and not just the obvious ones) interested in African
American history? The reasons, though hard to explain at first,
make much sense when thought about. First of all African Americans
are interesting and always have been. They arouse many emotions
(of one kind or another), have been through a lot, survived a lot
and done a lot that makes people feel something. Love them or hate
them, they are not a bland, boring people. Even when it is sad,
tragic and angering, theirs is not a history or culture which leaves
one with little or no reaction. Secondly, Black Americans are creative
and have had to make do for a long time with very little except
what they could salvage within themselves from Africa - their music,
their dance, their religion, their soulfulness and their sense of
relationship to a higher level. Third, the African American story
has not been told well or accurately over the years and most people
are just now becoming aware of the true nature and dimensions of
the African American experience. Each newly uncovered chapter in
that history brings more discovery and fascination to a formerly
unknowing world that increasingly recognizes that it needs to know
more. People (all types of people, not just persons of African descent)
can learn and benefit greatly from African American history, just
as they have benefited from African American labor and culture over
the years. Fourth, African Americans enable others to feel good,
even when African Americans themselves do not feel good. Their cultural
strengths include much joy in the face of adversity and emotional
insight into the human condition. Most importantly, their capacity
to achieve and express psycho-spiritual exaltation is a precious
inheritance that many others have always been eager to share.
The African American history field is rapidly expanding and diversifying.
New themes and issues constantly expand, redefine and vary our understanding
of what African American history is and what it means for everyone,
not just African Americans. Even famous chapters in African American
history (such as the Harlem Renaissance) deserve to be revisited
and re-explored so that what was once seen in a limited way can
now become better known as a larger, more interesting, more complex
and fascinating story and thus more valuable to the world.
Pre-abolition, 1619-1863
AFRICAN AMERICAN BEGINNINGS
People of African descent were in North America long before
many others (except of course Native Americans) and long before
America became the country we know today as the United States. The
story of the African presence in the western hemisphere starts with
a few individuals who were in the New World from the beginning.
The earliest African-descended persons generally thought to have
set foot in North America were sailors accompanying Columbus.
In 1514 The Spanish priest de Las Casas opposed the enslavement
of Native Americans and suggests that Africans be used instead (to
spare the Native Americans from being exterminated). In 1518 the
first cargo of African slaves came to the West Indies from Africa.
In 1526-27 a Spanish explorer brought Black slaves to the coast
of Carolina. Except for those who sailed with Columbus, these were
the first known group of Africans to come into what is now the United
States. These Africans later escaped and joined the Native Americans
in the interior.
In 1527, Estevan, a Spanish speaking African who was shipwrecked
in America, traveled throughout the southeast and south west meeting
the native peoples and learning their language and culture. Because
of his knowledge, he was very instrumental in helping to save other
Spanish explorers who got lost, attacked by Native Americans and
nearly starved to death.
Anthony Johnson, the first recorded English-speaking person of African
descent is shown in the records of the English colony at Jamestown
in Virginia as a free man in the early 17th century.
Later many, many Africans were brought to the New World in great
numbers involuntarily as slaves. They were forced to work in agriculture
(sugar, tobacco, cotton, rice, etc.) and contributed much to New
World's economy and culture.
The first three centuries of the African American story is very
much related to the evils and terrible sufferings of captivity and
enslavement. Most earlier African Americans were subject to some
type of slave regime. Many millions of captured Africans were brought
against their will to work relentlessly without freedom or reward
for the economic benefit of others in the Americas and the Caribbean.
Some (a small percentage) were free or able to secure their freedom
but many more were brutally and oppressively enslaved. Many years
later, their ability to endure and survive saw them rise out of
slavery and develop and achieve as a people.
The African slave trade started before Europeans arrived in the
Western Hemisphere. The first beginnings of slavery were the relatively
small numbers of slaves brought from Africa to Portugal and Spain.
In 1442 for example a Portuguese sea captain under King Henry the
Navigator captured 2 or 3 Moors of noble birth who offered to pay
for their freedom with 10 male and female Africans. The Portuguese
accepted the 10 Blacks as a ransom payment and these first 10 were
sold in the market in Lisbon. The Portuguese, acting under a papal
grant, monopolized the slave trade until 1517.
In the four centuries between 1450 and the late 1860s slavery was
systematically practiced by many of the western European nations
who profited greatly by the cruel trade in buying, selling and using
Africans for work in the western Hemisphere. The major reason for
slavery was the fact that European nations could enrich themselves
from crops, gold, silver and other New World products.
At first, Europeans tried to use the original inhabitants of the
Western Hemisphere (the Native Americans in North and South America)
for slave laborers. However, the Native Americans tended to consistently
die rapidly from diseases brought from Europe and what can be described
as genocide-induced heartbreak. Great numbers of them were wiped
out within a few years of European arrival. Africans however were
hardier and could survive the hardships of contact with Europeans
and their diseases as well as the horrors of slavery. Thus, European
countries started to import African slaves into the New World and
became very rich by doing so. Later, the slave trade grew to enormous
proportions in the New World because of the demand for workers in
plantation agriculture and other fields (such as the mines of South
America).
The Spanish and Portuguese were the first major commercial participants
in the New World slave trade which spread rapidly to other European
countries. Slavery later became a profitable, widespread system
heavily influenced by the Dutch, the English and later Americans.
Slavery in the English speaking America began when the captain of
a passing Dutch ship sold 20 or more slaves to the English colony
at Jamestown in 1619. In its first two centuries in the United States,
slavery existed in the north as well as the south.
It is estimated that between 10 and 20 million Africans were captured,
enslaved and brought to the western Hemisphere for sale by various
European nations (mostly the Dutch, Spanish, English, French and
Portuguese). The majority of the slaves went to the Caribbean and
South America. Only a few (4-7%) ended up in what is now the United
States. Those that were taken to North America however have - through
their descendents - had, over the course of time, an impact on the
world far greater than their original importation numbers would
indicate.
Not all African Americans were slaves. Throughout the slavery period
there were a minority of free Blacks in the U.S. in both the North
and the south. Some estimates conclude that about 10% of all Blacks
were free (a number which varies with time and place). A few were
always free, some became free by buying their freedom through hard
work, some (e.g. children or favorites of the slave owner) were
freed (i.e. manumitted) by slave holders and some ran away from
slavery and remained free after that. Despite being legally free
however, free Blacks were not treated as equals and were heavily
discriminated against. Thus, though they were technically free,
they faced the same barriers of racism and discrimination that slaves
did. Sometimes they were even illegally captured and sold into slavery.
Many African American slaves were of mixed European and African
blood since slave owners often forced slave women to yield to them.
Many other Africans intermarried with Native Americans (whom they
encountered when they ran away or who were sometimes enslaved with
them). To this day it is estimated that 90% of all African Americans
have European or Native American ancestors or both.
Slavery and the slave trade changed the course of history and affected
the whole world (not just enslaved Africans) in many ways that are
still being strongly felt today. As a result of slavery, the entire
population of the North and South America changed to include many
people of African descent. Certain European countries (e.g. Spain
and England) became rich and powerful enough to change the balance
of power in Europe. Many other changes occurred in numerous ways
(economics, religion, food, music, clothing, shipping, etc.). Thus
the slaves - despite or because of their oppression and the price
they paid - had an impact on the world that is still occurring.
In America, slavery made many people (North and South) rich and
successful but later it became the major problem of American politics
and society. Because of slavery, many political and economic arguments
arose and a major internal war (the civil war) was fought. Even
in their oppression, the slaves made a difference and their descendents
continue to make a difference today.
The number of African Americans in the U.S. grew steadily all throughout
the slavery period. The number of slaves in the United states increased
from 698,000 in 1790 to 3.95 million in 1860 and over the decades
about 92% lived in the south until 1900.
In 1840 the African American population in America was approximately
2.87 million (about 16.8% of the total number of Americans). About
5% of those in the south (where most Blacks lived) were free, the
rest were slaves.
In 1850 there were 3.6 million African Americans in the United States
(15.7% of the 23.2 million people in the country). About 88% were
slaves and about 1 in 8 Blacks were free.
By 1860, the total Black population in the U.S. had grown to 4.44
million, most in the south and most (about 89% or 3.95 million)
were slaves.
Africans in early New York: The Dutch and New Amsterdam
Africans have been in New York almost from the very beginning. The
Dutch, who had settled New York State from a very early time had
slaves who helped to make them prosperous. The 17th century Dutch
colony known as New Amsterdam had a tremendous labor shortage since
there was much to do and few people to do it. Importing slaves became
one of the favorite solutions to their labor problem used by the
Dutch West India Company. Without slaves to do the work of agriculture,
building public works and fight Native Americans, early New York
would probably not have survived or thrived as a viable colony.
The Black presence started in New York State about 1624 when the
Dutch imported slaves from Angola and Brazil to work in upstate
Hudson Valley farms. In 1626 a Dutch ship brought 11 African men
(who were probably captured slaves) to New York City (then known
as New Amsterdam) as seamen. Two years later, 3 African women were
sold as slaves in the new city. The Dutch West India Company recognized
slavery in their New York colony as early as 1626 and profited from
it by importing slaves. Most Africans belonged to the Dutch West
Indies Company rather than individuals slaveholders and were known
as "the company's Negroes". These Africans were under
the control of an official known as the "Keeper Of The Negroes".
In 1646 the first slave ship to arrive in New York carried slaves
from the West Indies island of Curacao in the Netherlands Antilles.
Slavery was practiced and remained legal (despite the presence of
a few free Blacks) for some 200 years after that (until it was abolished
in stages in the first three decades of the 19th century).
Getting more slaves was a constant preoccupation of the Dutch and
later the English. There was a continuous shortage of and demand
for slaves since there was so much work and so few laborers. Governor
Peter Stuyvesant used his connections in Curacao (where he was once
stationed) to secure for himself 40 slaves, making him the largest
private slave holder in New Amsterdam.
At first many Dutch slaves could work their way out of slavery and
were treated a slight bit better than those in the English colonies.
The Dutch instituted a system called "Half-freedom" in
which a slave had some degree of freedom but was still a slave for
most purposes. Later this changed and life became harder for people
of African descent.
Several interesting events happened to African Americans under the
Dutch, some of which are first time events in recorded African American
history:
The small amount of information that exists about the first African
slaves in new Amsterdam is their last names which all relate to
the Congo, Angola and the Portuguese (probably an indication of
where they might have originated and who originally captured them).
In 1634, Dutch patroons (large landowners) were each given 12 Black
men and women out of those captured from other European ships carrying
slaves as a prize of commercial war 18 years after the first arrival
of Africans in New Amsterdam, 11 of them petitioned the company
for their freedom. In that year (1644) an act was passed manumitting
these 11 African slaves because of long and faithful service to
the company. To pay for their freedom they were required to give
the company 22 ½ bushels of corn or other crops and a hog
valued at 8 dollars or be returned to slavery. These Africans were
given land far outside the boundaries of the existing colony in
a swamp known today as Greenwich Village and Washington Square (an
area which remained a Negro neighborhood for many years). Emancipating
the parents did not automatically emancipate their children and
special, prolonged effort (whose outcome is uncertain) was necessary
to get the children freed as well as the parents
Most Africans in new Netherlands were brought from and "seasoned"
(i.e. forced to accommodate themselves to slavery and European customs)
in the island of Curacao. The Dutch had a colony and a plantation
system in Curacao that used and produced many slaves. Curacao became
important in the fate of early African Americans since the Dutch
in new Amsterdam much preferred slaves who had been seasoned there
to those directly imported from Africa (mostly Angola). Slaves who
had not had their will broken through seasoning were distrusted
as "proud and treacherous".
As a kind of subsidy and to keep the cost of valuable slaves down,
the Dutch West India Company sold slaves to Dutch New Yorkers at
a 10% discount below international rates and allowed them to exchange
unsatisfactory slaves for company slaves
In the 1640s, slaves from the West Indies sold for about 300 guilders
while those directly from Africa sold for much less. A free worker
by contrast earned about 280 guilders a year plus food and lodging.
Since slaves (who were owned for a lifetime) were a one-time expense
while free workers were a yearly expense and had to be freed after
a time, slavery was clearly a very good economic bargain and a sound
investment for slaveholders.
Sometimes, Blacks were armed and used to fight native Americans
who were a threat to the Dutch. Arming slaves was then considered
a daring practice (given the risk of slave revolt) but the Dutch
felt forced to do it. Peter Stuyvesant, then the governor of New
Amsterdam wrote to Curacao in 1660 to send "clever and strong"
Africans to "pursue the Indians".
After 1640 agriculture expanded and began to replace the fur trade
as the major industry of the New Netherlands. The presence and hard
work of African slaves thus was directly responsible for the success
of agriculture and the expansion of the economy (especially in the
Hudson valley) where uncultivated land required much labor. Slaves
also provided much of the labor for public works in the City (to
build buildings, roads and walls, dig canals and perform numerous
domestic chores).
In 1641 one of six slaves was killed by another whose identity could
not be determined. To prevent themselves from being tortured to
find out the individual culprit, all five of the Black suspects
declared they had done the deed. The Dutch magistrates then decided
to force the slaves to draw lots to let God determine who was guilty.
A large man named Manuel De Gerritt (called the Giant") was
thus unluckily selected to be hanged. Pieter, the city's Negro executioner,
tried to hang him but miraculously two strong ropes around the intended
victim's neck broke and his body fell to the ground unharmed. The
bystanders them clamored for his pardon and he was released on a
promise of good conduct. He later became one of the first 11 to
be manumitted in 1644.
Also in1641, the first recorded marriage between Africans took place
when Anthony Angola married Lucy d'Angola
In 1661 the first recorded adoption took place when an African American
couple, Emanuel Pietersen and his wife Dorothy Angola, adopted an
infant who they reared and educated (paying 300 guilders for the
boy's freedom).
Africans were very involved in celebrations and music in New Amsterdam.
They sometimes made homemade instruments from old eel pots covered
with sheepskin and beat out African rhythms with their bare hands.
One very old slave named Charley who was said to be 125 years old
was a well-known drummer and led the dancing of both Blacks and
Whites.
In addition to music and dance, some Blacks were thought to have
a mysterious ability to predict the weather, an important skill
in a farming community. Some were also said to be good traders,
whistlers (hereby controlling draft animals and communicating).
Some also seemed to show mathematical expertise by using their fingers
to count and calculate.
In 1643 Domingo Antony appeared in the historical records as the
earliest African descended landowner in New York City.
Around 1660, one Lucas Santomee, a free Black and son of an ex-slave
was well known in the Dutch colony as a physician.
Dutch slavery had some historical impact on African Americans in
general and left a few cultural survivals. The Pinkster holiday,
largely observed in upstate New York where the Dutch settled, took
on a strongly festive flavor among Dutch-influenced African Americans
over time. In 19th century downstate Brooklyn, African American
dancing, cooking and merrymaking reflected the presence of upstate
Blacks from former Dutch areas celebrating the Pinkster (i.e. Pentecost)
tradition.
When the English took over New York from the Dutch in 1664, there
were 600 formerly Dutch slaves in New York City and State.
In 1700 there were about 3,600 slaves in a regional population of
53,000 in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1710
there were 44,866 slaves in British North America, (36,563 of them
in the South). By the time of the American Revolution (1776) the
slave population in this region had increased about tenfold to about
35,000.
Ironically, the enslavement of Blacks by the Dutch played a key
though unexpected, unintended role in the loss of New Amsterdam
by the Dutch to the English. Though Dutch Governor Stuyvesant did
not want to surrender to the English when they appeared tin ships
to take over New Amsterdam, he later wrote that he was eventually
forced to yield to the English because of lack of food to hold out.
He explained to the company's directors in Holland that he was forced
to surrender to the English because 300 African slaves had arrived
in the colony just before the English and had eaten up all the surplus
food. Due to the need to feed these newly arrived Africans, the
Dutch colony did not have enough food to withstand a long siege
and the English were thus able to conquer New Amsterdam.
As the Dutch period ended, slavery under the English increased and
the trafficking in slaves (as distinct from their use for labor)
became a bigger business. Certain places in the City became known
as slave buying locations and many tricks and complexities had to
be mastered by those who bought and sold slaves in the newly Anglicized
city.
Slave resistance, revolts and the fears of slavery supporters
The slaves did not always merely accept their fate and in many ways
(e.g. through religion, song and dance) they resisted or tried to
counteract the harsh oppression they were subjected to. Throughout
the slavery period there were slave revolts and slave resistance.
Sometimes, the slaves actually revolted and fought the slavery system
in physical confrontation to the point of death. One of the most
famous slave revolt was that of Nat Turner in Virginia in 1831 but
there were significant others (before and after Turner). In a few
places outside the United States some slaves were able to escape
and set up separate societies beyond the control of slave owners.
Outright slave revolts (especially in North America) were relatively
rare but various forms of slave resistance (sometimes subtle) were
common. Slave resistance took the form of running away, using special
language, gaining mental privacy and independence by gathering to
sing and dance, taking food and supplies, surreptitiously helping
those who were to be punished, destroying slave owner property that
symbolized oppression, mental escape through religion, slowing down
oppressive work rules, etc.
There was always a fear among slave owners and their supporters
that the slaves would rise up and strike back at their oppressors.
Thus, the various slavery regimes gave much thought and energy to
ways to keep slaves oppressed, obedient and hard working. The fear
of slave revolt and uprising led to many laws and practices intended
to keep slaves from feeling strong, organizing, resisting or knowing
enough to overcome their oppressors. Multiple, relentless efforts
were made to make slaves feel inferior, afraid of their slave masters
and accept the idea that they deserved their slave status. In many
places slaves were constantly intimidated, forbidden from gathering
together, being educated, learning how to read and write, owning
anything, speaking their own original language, being with people
from their own original cultural group, having legitimate families,
communicating or knowing anything of the world,
Certain types of slaves - those likely to be independent thinkers
or from proudly independent places or tribes - were regarded with
special suspicion. Slave owners and supporters of slavery especially
feared and attempted to suppress slaves who were religious leaders,
practitioners of voodoo (African mystical powers were greatly feared),
good speakers (i.e. able to mobilize the others), those able to
read and write and those who had traveled in the world.
In early New York City there was a great fear of slave uprising
(one of which occurred in 1712) and a major incident of slave revolt
paranoia (the Negro Plot of 1741) led to many Black deaths and much
repression when Backs were blamed for mysterious fires. Most of
the fears that led to this outbreak of officially sanctioned repression
were obviously related to the projection of blame due to the fear
that Blacks would rise up and do to a slave owning society what
had in fact been systematically done to them.
Over the years, African American life in New York City has not been
easy. Incidents of racial oppression and anti-Black violence have
happened in New York City over the years. During the civil war,
for example, an incident of grossly unfair racial destructiveness
(the New York Draft Riots of 1863) occurred when many Whites refused
to serve in the Union Army and attacked helpless Blacks (who were
not protected by the police) as the cause of their having to provide
military service.
Civil war and abolition, 1861-1865
Slavery was a problem for America since the very beginning
of the founding of the country. At the time America became an independent
country, some wanted to end slavery and others wanted to continue
it because they made much profit from it and their social position
depended on having many people they could feel superior to.
The U.S. Constitution - the guiding document that describes how
the country is to be run - allowed some states to be free (i.e.
without slavery) and some states to retain slavery. Several laws
had been passed that made slavery legal in various states (in the
south and the border states) even if it was not legal in others
(i.e. in the north). The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 strengthened
an earlier law of 1793 that made it legal for slave owners to get
runaway slaves and workers back.
In the North, slavery was legal for a time but slowly died out as
the economic reasons for it declined. New York abolished slavery
gradually over a 20 or 30 year period but there were slaves in New
York State until the very end of this period (1827).
In the pre-industrial agricultural South, however, slavery was highly
profitable and plantation slave owners (who were the leaders of
southern society) fought to keep slavery from ending. Much tension
between the slave and free states existed and slaves many times
tried to escape and find their way to the north, Canada and freedom.
All throughout the early part of the 1800s, many people in the north
(and some in the south) more and more opposed slavery. The desire
to abolish slavery became known as the abolition movement which
became stronger and stronger, especially in New York, Massachusetts
and New England. As opposition to slavery grew stronger and became
organized, various anti-slavery organizations were formed.
Several very important fighters against slavery were African Americans
and their names are forever honored in history for their work for
freedom. The most famous of these is Frederick Douglass, an escaped
slave himself, who was a tireless, brilliant thinker, orator and
political agitator against slavery. There were also several very
important women who risked their lives to fight against slavery:
Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth bravely led escaped slaves to
freedom and served as anti-slavery advocates, strategists and informants.
Sojourner Truth, born about 1775 (estimates vary) in Africa, was
brought to America as a child and sold as a slave in upstate New
York. She was a slave on the farm of a rich Dutch landowner where
she worked very hard at many tasks usually thought to be too difficult
for a woman. She had five children (4 grew past infancy) and ran
away in 1826 (the year before New York abolished slavery) carrying
her infant daughter. She made a living as a domestic servant in
New York City and was never oppressed again. She gave many important
speeches against slavery and oppression of Blacks before, during
and after the civil war. She was 6 feet tall, black-skinned, physically
strong, brave and lived to a very old age. She was also a very religious
mystic who preached against sinfulness (especially slavery). She
also was a fighter for women's rights. Interestingly, she spoke
in a heavy Dutch accent but her words always struck her audience
as true and powerful.
In the first half of the 19th century, more and more Blacks were
trying to escape slavery by running away from their slave owners
and travelling secretly to the north. Since slavery was still legal
and slaves were considered property, slave owners could legally
hunt for their escaped slaves and seek to get their slaves back
by several means. They could offer a money reward for runaway information,
ask the local authorities to search for and arrest runaway slaves
or send bounty hunters to find, imprison and return them to slavery
(where they faced certain and cruel punishment for trying to get
to freedom).
Many people in the north helped escaped slaves to hide, get food
and rest and keep travelling toward freedom further north and in
Canada. The secret network of people and places that helped slaves
escape was called "The Underground Railroad" which included
many kind-hearted people who hated slavery and helped slaves avoid
recapture and return to the south. Today, the Underground Railroad
is a celebrated chapter in the history of the fight against slavery
and is being frequently commemorated in ceremonies and historic
sites.
Slavery in the United States was essentially ended by the Civil
War - a vast and destructive war with far-reaching consequences
between the U.S. government (supported by the non-slave holding
northern and western states) and a confederacy of rebellious southern
states (which fought to preserve slavery).
The civil war began in 1861 when the southern states decided to
secede (i.e. leave) the United States. The starting incident in
the civil war was an April, 12, 1861 attack by pro-slavery forces
on a major symbolic federal (i.e. U.S. government) location, Fort
Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The civil war
lasted four years (1861-65), was mostly fought in the south and
involved great destruction. Many African Americans fought in the
civil war and several incidents showed them to be good and brave
soldiers.
The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, issued by President Abraham
Lincoln during the Civil War, effectively abolished slavery in the
United States after many years. It was not an easy accomplishment.
In the same year, African American participation in the Civil War
increased dramatically and they helped (as soldiers, laborers, agents,
etc.) win the war for the Union (the U.S. government) and themselves.
ABOLITIONISTS IN THE UNITED STATES
From the inception of the United States of American many
of the founding father's were opposed to the institution of slavery
on moral grounds, such as Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton,
John Jay, Thomas Paine, John Quincy Adams and Benjamin Rush.
Religious organizations like The Society of Friends founded by the
Quakers, were actively campaigning for the abolition of slavery
and had effectively forced emancipation on a gradual basis in all
the northern states by 1804. In the western states legislation to
prohibit expansion of slavery was enacted in 1820.
Yet efforts to end slavery in the southern states were ineffective
due to the substantial economic dependency on slave labor in the
south.
From 1790-1830, the southern state's abolitionist movement led by
Benjamin Lundy, carried-out a passive and gradual change philosophy.
This was replaced by more radical and violent abolitionist movements
beginning in the 1830's, led by both black and white leaders, such
as; William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, Angelina Grimké,
Wendall Phillips and Theodore Weld.
These leaders established the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833,
and by 1835 they created a network of state and local societies
who were very active and conducted massive petitions to the U.S.
and State legislatures.
One segment of this society formed the Liberty Party and ran abolitionist
presidential candidates in the 1840 and 1844 elections. Although
they lost, reorganization of the party eventually resulted in formation
of the Republican Party.
In 1816, the American Colonization Society was founded with the
intention to resettle freed slaves back to Africa. They established
a colony in Liberia in 1822.
Many in the abolitionist movement regarded this organization as
racist, with the goal to remove a threat of freed slaves from American
soil, rather than deal with freed slaves within American society.
After the Fugitive Slave Laws of 1850 were enacted, more violent
clashes increased, with one famous example being that of James Brown
who murdered five pro-slavery men Kansas, then in 1859 seized the
port of Harper's Ferry. These clashes became a prominent foreshadowing
to the development of the U.S. Civil War. When Abraham Lincoln issued
the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, this was refuted by the southern
states, and the Civil War expanded.
The southern Confederate States lost the Civil War, however, even
after the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which abolished
slavery in 1865, there were still severe inequalities for freed
slaves.
ABOLITIONISTS IN THE UNITED STATES
From the inception of the United States of America, numerous
slavery abolition movements were active. They had forced emancipation
in the northern states by 1804 and prohibited expansion of slavery
into the western states by 1820. Yet the southern states refused
to abandon slavery.
The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, ran abolitionist
presidential candidates in both the 1840 and 1844 elections. Although
their party lost the elections, it was later reorganized into the
Republican Party.
From the 1830's to 1850's the abolitionists became more violent
and the southern leaders more entrenched. The result was the U.S.
Civil War and eventual surrender of the south. In 1863, president
Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, and in 1865
the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution abolished slavery.
Reconstruction
The period immediately after the civil war is known as "Reconstruction"
(i.e. a term suggesting the rebuilding the country after the ruin
of the civil war). Reconstruction is generally considered to extend
between 1865 (when the civil war ended) to 1877. During reconstruction
African Americans made great political progress, gaining the right
to vote and becoming governors, senators and judges. This period
did not last however, since racism and political deals restored
anti-Black forces to power.
In 1870, there were more than 4.8 million Blacks in the U.S. who
made up 12.7% of the country. Most Blacks were living in the rural
south though a few were beginning to move to cities. At this time,
shortly after the civil war, only about 20% of the African American
population could read and write.
During reconstruction, many African Americans moved around the country
and started to move north and west. Some were searching for family
members who had been sold or lost in the slavery period, some were
escaping the fighting or joining the army so that they could fight
against slavery, some were searching for economic opportunity and
some wanted to get away from the places where they had been oppressed
as slaves.
Reconstruction was a time when many important African American institutions
- churches, colleges, businesses and organizations - were established.
Between 1870 and 1880, 23 Black colleges were founded (even though
few Blacks could afford to attend them).
Many of these organizations, businesses and institutions are no
longer in existence but some are still proudly functioning today.
Reconstruction also saw many African Americans becoming owners of
farms and property (especially in the south). Some also went out
to the new western states and established independent towns and
places where they could be freer.
Post reconstruction and anti-black backlash
Reconstruction in the south was undermined by the withdrawal
of federal troops and anti-Black legislation. Reconstruction's end
also saw an anti-Black backlash and the rise of organized terror
by the enemies of African Americans. In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan (a
violent, anti-Black organization) was formed to force Blacks to
give up their new rights (e.g. voting) and live in a state of fear,
oppression and submission. The Klan worked with corrupt public officials
and for decades was very successful in certain places in reversing
Black post slavery gains.
After reconstruction and even for decades after World War I African
Americans experienced a period of great discrimination and hardship.
During this time southern states passed laws that prohibited Blacks
from voting and instituted segregation in all areas of life. Several
southern states passed laws that established a system of forced
agricultural labor contracts and prevented Blacks from moving away
to other places in order to keep them working for low wages on southern
farms. Thus a system of share cropping (which resembling slavery
or serfdom) was established in many places.
Still, African Americans served the country well and African Americans
fought with distinction in the Spanish American War and in other
ways (e.g. as workers, builders and inventors). There were many
attempts to improve the lot of African Americas through organizations,
conventions and business development. Despite vicious racism, and
also because of it, there was some progress among African Americans.
African American banks, newspapers, fraternities, businesses, colleges
and racial advancement organizations (the NAACP and the Urban League)
were started.
Lynching & anti-lynching
Lynching (torture and murder usually through hanging) was
very common in places where Black rights were denied and was used
to prevent Blacks from voting, expressing their opinions, leaving
oppressive work situations or holding property. Between 1882 and
1964, Tuskeegee Institute (a Black college which did much research)
reported that 4,742 Blacks were lynched.
A strong reaction to lynching began among brave Blacks who protested,
wrote, spoke and worked hard to end lynching (considered then the
most grave threat to Black well being). The NAACP (which started
in New York City in 1910) worked against lynching. W.E.B. DuBois
(one of the founders and chief activists of the NAACP) and Ida B.
Wells (a crusading journalist) are among the many key figures who
worked to stop lynching and oppression.
Urbanization and migration
Between 1900 and 1920 many African Americans moved from the
south to northern cities, a population movement called "The
Great Migration". Not only did they move to the north, they
moved especially to the cities (e.g. Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia,
New York and Washington D.C.). There were both "push"
factors (which drove people away from the ways places they have
been living) and "pull" factors (which drew them toward
new opportunities, places and new lifestyles).
The continuing tide of racial oppression (lynching, land stealing,
etc.) occurring in the south in the years between 1877 and 1920
was a very big push factor. A vicious system of tenant farming and
low wage jobs exploited Black farm laborers and caused them to want
to escape to jobs in the north. The tediousness, lack of opportunity
and boredom of life in the rural south contrasted with the excitement
and opportunity of life in big cities for younger people and those
whose talents were wasted in the south. At certain times, "pull"
factors such as economic growth, labor shortages, etc. created industrial
and other jobs in the North that needed to be filled. Agents of
northern companies and industries would come to the south to recruit
Black farm laborers. In New York and other big cities, African Americans
found that they had more freedom, more economic opportunity, more
excitement and thus more reason to leave the south.
In 1900 there were 8.8 million Blacks in the U.S., all but 900,000
living in the south. Then Blacks made up 11.6% of the U.S. population
of 76 million people. The cities with the largest Black populations
(50,000 or more) included Washington D.C., New Orleans, Baltimore
and Philadelphia. New York was the fifth largest city in terms of
Black population with about 60,700 Blacks.
In 1920, most African Americans still lived in the south but not
for long. About ¼ of the total population of the south was
African American but during the 1920s, almost 750,000 Blacks moved
north. Immigrants from the Caribbean seeking economic opportunity
also swelled the Black population of New York City and contributed
much to its culture and energy. Between 1910 and 1920, New York's
Black population increased 66.3% (from over 60,000 to over 152,000).
In other cites the increase was larger (e.g. Chicago) or nearly
as large (Philadelphia).
World War I
War changes many things (boundaries, politics, economics, technology,
etc.) and most of all it changes people. World War I (1914-1917)
changed Black Americans too by changing the way they saw themselves
and how they wanted to be seen and live. This change anticipated
a much later, larger change in identity and public stature that
occurred in the Civil Rights era of the 1960s.
Service in the war which required many Black soldiers to leave the
rural south, go abroad and see the world. Several hundred thousand
Blacks (estimates vary) served in the war in Europe and about 1,300
were allowed to be officers (less than 1% percent of the total).
Their military service enabled them to leave the southern farms
where many lived. After coming home from the war, they were bitterly
disappointed to find out that despite having fought and died for
the country they were still subject to the racism and discrimination
they faced before they left.
However, seeing the world and hearing much publicity about "making
the world safe for democracy" changed their thinking and they
now wanted more out of life and more out of the country. The role
of women too was changed to some extent by the war since they were
needed outside the home. Rising experiences and rising expectations
led to movement and helped create the conditions for the New Negro
period and the Harlem Renaissance. The war increased African Americans'
knowledge of the world, impatience with discrimination and desire
to escape rural poverty and oppression. It therefore speeded up
migration and Blacks began to pour into northern cities seeking
more opportunity.
World War II & The beginnings of
integration
World War II (1941-45) also changed the world and Black America
in many ways. Many Blacks fought in World War II: More than 701,000
served in the army; 165,000 served in the navy, 5000 served in the
Coast Guard; 17,000 served in the Marines and 4,000 women served
in the WAVES and WACS.
The war lead to a demand for integration in the military forces
and finally in July, 1948 (after the war had ended) President Truman
issued an executive order officially integrating the military services.
Integration of the military (which started in small, slow ways during
the war) was important since once the armed forces were integrated,
it became obvious that the rest of the country back home should
be integrated also. The war also produced benefits like the G.I.
Bill which helped pay for soldiers (including Blacks) to go to college
and other benefits helped ex-soldiers buy homes. After the war the
pace of integration and Black progress quickened:
In 1940 there were 23,000 Blacks attending colleges and in 1950
there were 113,735 getting a college education (mostly at historically
Black colleges).
Integration proceeded slowly but steadily in education, sports and
other areas
Blacks in literature and theater got major awards
Jackie Robinson broke into professional baseball in New York City
A major Supreme Court decision started the trend toward complete
integration of the public schools and the civil rights movement.
Later, major integration efforts began in the south and spread to
all aspects of the nation's functioning.
Civil rights and the 1960s and 70s
The civil rights period (1954 to the 1970s) peaked in the
1960s and was among the most important times ever in the history
of African Americans and the world. African Americans and their
allies confronted long-standing oppression, injustices and prejudices
that had weighed down African Americans since their arrival in the
country. It started as a movement for integration and became a total
liberation and identity movement. Using non-violent techniques,
Martin Luther King, its most important leader, led the civil rights
movement in the south and though later martyred, he became the major
figure in the struggle for equality all over the world. In the 1960s
the US Congress passed the voting and civil rights acts and other
legislation which insured Black civil rights. There was still much
to be done in economics however since many Blacks were low income
and under-educated.
Many key advances in the situation of African Americans occurred
in the 1960s Civil Rights period. They began to be admitted to schools,
colleges and public accommodations formerly closed to them. They
began to occupy high public office and actively participate in many
aspects of American society from which they had long been excluded
by segregation and discrimination. Their image of themselves changed
as they began to regard themselves and their culture as worthwhile
and attractive. Many aspects of African American culture and styles
(e.g. in speech) became fashionable and widely imitated. Rejecting
the ancient need to look like Europeans physically, younger and
more culturally activist African Americans started to accept and
be proud of their physical features. Thus, the phrase "Black
Is Beautiful" arose and captured the minds of many. The image
of African Americans among others and their treatment by mainstream
American society changed too. Assumptions of inferiority were challenged
and for the first time in American history it became illegal (at
least publicly) to discriminate against Blacks.
The lives and work of three important African Americans during the
early and mid civil rights period are particularly instructive:
MARTIN LUTHER KING (1929-1968)
was the most prominent and widely effective of all 20th century
African American social and political leaders. He arose as a leader
against segregation and racial injustice in the south and became
recognized nationally and internationally as an articulate non-violent
social justice activist. His accomplishments are too numerous and
his impact too far reaching to recount in a few sentences. He was
the single most important American civil rights leader of the 20th
century and he is the person to whom most African Americans attribute
their greatest post-slavery progress as a race. His speeches, tactics
and insights moved Black America and the world toward justice that
had been long denied. He refined the use of non-violent social protest
and grass roots organizing and his oratorical gifts and ability
to see the larger picture in social protest situation is legendary.
He was the second African American (after Ralph Bunche) to receive
the Nobel Peace Prize (in 1964). He was assassinated in 1968, another
of the civil rights era murders that have never been publicly solved.
His global prestige is enormous and many different types of people
all over the world attribute their liberation (in one form or another)
to the civil rights movement and tactics he developed.
RALPH BUNCHE (1904-1971) was
a scholar, athlete, diplomat and civic leader who symbolized excellence
and high-minded public service in 20th century African American
history. He was not only important in America but internationally
as well. His contributions and activities began long before the
civil rights period but continued well into this era. He was the
first Nobel Peace Prize winner of African descent (1950) and played
a major role in achieving peace in the Middle East after World War
II. He earned an A.M. (1928) and a Ph.D. (1934) from Harvard. He
was also a scholar and official in other places including Howard
University. He is best known for his work in the United Nations
and in 1950 he became the first African American to win the Nobel
peace prize for his work in resolving Arab-Israeli disputes after
World War II. The next year he became an undersecretary of the United
Nations. Later, he was also very active in pressing for justice
and Black rights in the civil rights period.
MALCOLM X (born Malcolm Little in 1925)
was an important New York-based social activist in Black America
in the 1960s. He started as a vocal and leading member of the Black
Muslims (an Islamic religious movement that advocated Black self-sufficiency,
identify and pro-Black separateness). His development as a person
and as a leader symbolized for many the struggles of African Americans
in general and he has become a highly inspirational cultural, political
and religious figure for many. After a difficulty filled early life,
he served as an articulate and charismatic chief spokesman for the
Black Muslim movement. However, after a visit to Mecca and a number
of internal changes, disillusionment with the leader and the restrictive
ideology of that movement set in. He then became independent of
the Nation Of Islam, changed to orthodox (non-racially separatist)
Islam and preached a broader, and to some more globally sophisticated
platform of advancement for Black Americans. He never again had
a positive relationship with Elijah Muhammed (the leader of the
Black Muslim movement) or his supporters. He also was a target of
constant surveillance by the FBI who saw him as a dangerous radical.
He was assassinated in 1965 while giving a speech at the Audubon
ballroom in upper Harlem. His murder has never satisfactorily been
solved but his stature and message grew enormously and permanently
after his death.
Black power & militancy
As civil rights movement progressed, goals other than integration
became important to the more politically active African Americans.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a strong desire for political
empowerment and an assertive self-defining identity in all areas
of life swept Black America, especially the young. The phrase "Black
Power" symbolized their aim to not only integrate but to hold
power whether or not they were integrated into the Euro-American
mainstream.
There was much disagreement among Blacks as to the desirability
of integration vs. separatism but most felt that power, not merely
integration, was the most beneficial long term goal, Again however,
there was much disagreement as to how to achieve power and what
to do with it. Some Black Power advocates preached various forms
of militancy and separatism. Older, more established civil rights
organizations and leaders were made uncomfortable by this but were
forced to re-evaluate their programs and results.
Post civil rights (the 1980s & 90s):
The political & economic mainstream vs. the ghetto
During and after the 1970s African Americans made progress
in some ways but retrogressed in others. Many educated, talented
and lucky people entered the top ranks of American society but the
great masses of poor and uneducated people did not gain much. In
fields such as politics, music, entertainment, literature, art and
to some extent business, major new strides were made. Discrimination
was still a problem but now occurred in economics (e.g. getting
high paying jobs) rather than in public facilities.
However, drugs, crime and family disintegration (all inter-related)
took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of the inner city. By the 1960s
and 70s Blacks had become identified with cities and their troubles
were often seen as a major urban problem. Many African Americans
were ill-prepared to take economic advantage of integration and
were left behind in urban ghetto slum conditions or remained in
rural poverty. Welfare dependency was the fate of many, a situation
which is painfully being addressed now and is highly controversial.
In education, many of the most academically proficient Blacks began
to be admitted to top, mainstream schools and more and more graduated
not from Black colleges but from predominantly white educational
institutions. Successful Blacks now began to move out of the urban
ghetto and into the suburbs. Recently, some younger well off Blacks
are wanting to socialize more with other Blacks who are not so fortunate.
Although ghetto music and lifestyles are associated with many African
Americans, others want the economic and social success that education,
professionalism and mainstream participation bring.
Though those who were under-educated or burdened by personal or societal
problems were not able to achieve what others could, many African
Americans still continued to make progress. Currently, public office
is more open to some, talented people are entering new fields and
a few are rising to the top ranks of corporate America.
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